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Myostatin HMP is a protein that is considered an inhibitor of growth differentiation factor.  It can be referred to by several different names, including Growth Factor 8, Differentiation Factor 8, GDF-8, GDF8, Myostatin, and MSTN.  When it is used in conjunction with scientific study based on animal test subjects, it has the appearance of a white powder.  The peptide has a molecular weight of 25.0 kDa.

Myostatin HMP vs. Myostatin

According to scientific study that has been conducted on animal test subjects, the primary purpose of Myostatin HMP is to act as an inhibitor to myostatin.

Myostatin has been determined to be a secreted growth differentiation factor, meaning that it is part of a subfamily of proteins that are part of the transforming growth factor beta superfamily that have functions chiefly associated with development.  Specifically, it is part of the TGF beta protein family that blocks the process of muscle differentiation and growth in myogenesis, which is the process in which muscular tissue is formed particularly during embryonic development.  The peptide is chiefly produced via skeletal muscle cells.  It also circulates throughout the blood and is known to act on muscle tissue by binding a cell-bound receptor that is known as the activin type II receptor.

When the peptide binds to the receptor, it results in the recruitment of a coreceptor known as either Alk-3 or Alk-4.  This particular coreceptor in turn commences with a cell signaling cascade within the muscle, which includes the activation of transcription factors with the SMAD family, which are intracellular proteins that transducer extracellular signals from transforming growth factor beta ligands to the nucleus where they turn on downstream gene transcription.  Specifically, the peptides are known to activate SMAD2 and SMAD3.  These particular factors in turn initiate gene regulation that is specific to myostatin.  When applied to myoblasts – that is, the impetus that creates the long, tubular cells that gradually develop into muscle fibers – the peptide inhibits their differentiation into mature fibers.

Additionally, scientific study that has been conducted on animal test subjects has determined that Myostatin also blocks Akt, a kinase that has been thought to be sufficient enough to cause muscle hypertrophy (that is, an increase in the size of skeletal muscle) partially via the activation of protein synthesis.  As such, the peptide is thought to act by inhibiting muscle differentiation and by inhibiting Akt-induced protein synthesis.  Furthermore, the peptide has been classified as a myokine.  In other words, it is considered to be a peptide that is produced, expressed, and released by muscle fibers and are known to exert endocrine, paracrine, or autocrine effects.

Myostatin HMP’s Effects

Scientific study based on animal test subjects has determined that Myostatin HMP’s ability to inhibit the production of Myostatin lessens the regulatory effects on skeletal muscle growth.  Because Myostatin is blocked, the muscles within an animal test subject are allowed to grow freely without being regulated to stop at a certain point within a certain time frame or interval.  This process is further heightened when it is considered that the presence of Myostatin inhibits the production of Akt, and therefore its ability to promote muscle hypertrophy.

Myostatin HMP and Muscle Growth

Because of the ability that Myostatin HMP has in terms of inhibiting the production of myostatin, scientific study that has been based on animal test subjects has determined that the peptide could play a key factor into accelerating muscle growth.  Because the regulatory processes that exist behind the presence of Myostatin, it is therorized that the presence of Myostatin HMP and its ability to inhibit myostatin can cause an increase in muscle growth and muscle size to happen on a more efficient basis.   Some studies have also theorized that the increase in muscle growth efficiency could have secondary benefits.  For example, it is thought that the acceleration of muscle tissue growth could conceivably cause acceleration in the breakdown of adipose tissue (that is, body fat).  The theory here is that the energy that is needed for muscle growth is turned into the muscular building blocks would be expended at a much faster rate.  As such, it leaves little time for adipose tissue to develop.   It would also cause any excess adipose tissue that had been built up over time to break down for purposes of energy conversion on a significantly faster rate, thus making it easier to break down any excess weight.

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The Action of Oxytocin

Scientific study that has been conducted on animal test subjects has been able to link Oxytocin to other various complex bodily functions that are not necessarily linked to various emotional or arousal responses.

For example, studies have determined that the peptide has been linked to the letdown reflex in lactating female animal test subjects.  In essence, the letdown reflex serves to regulate the presence of milk within animals that are breastfeeding.  This action is stimulated by the suckling process, wherein the information that surrounds the process is relayed to the spinal nerves of the hypothalamus, which in turn trigger the peptide to fire action potentials in intermittent bursts for purposes of regulation.  Other studies have linked the peptide to uterine contraction, a critical function that allows cervical dilation before birth to occur.  It has been further determined that the peptide’s presence induces contractions within the second and third stages of labor, and has also been shown to aid the uterus in clotting the placental attachment point postpartum.

Some studies have theorized that the presence of Oxytocin is thought to have the capacity to modulate inflammation, which is the complex biological response of vascular tissues in reaction to harmful stimuli like irritants, pathogens, or damaged cells.  These studies have indicated that the presence of the peptide can work to decrease specific cytokines.  This has led to the notion that the presence of the peptide could conceivably be connected to the acceleration of wound healing.

Theorized Benefits of Oxytocin

Scientific study that has been based on animal test subjects has been able to derive a host of potential benefits that can be linked to the presence of Oxytocin.

One of the primary benefits that have been hypothetically linked to the peptide revolves around the process of labor induction.  Because the presence of Oxytocin has been shown to play a vital role in various physiological responses pertaining to the birthing process in animal test subjects, it is though t that it can be utilized to ease various aspects of birthing malfunction, up to and including the suppression of premature labor.

Another one of the theories that have been linked to the peptide is that it could conceivably regulate certain socially-induced behavioral actions, such as trust, generosity, fear, and anxiety.  The theory here is that because the peptide acts as a neuromodulator, its presence can allow for an increased control over transmissions that have been thought to invoke various behavioral responses.

Some scientific study that has been built around animal test subjects involves the theoretical linking of Oxytocin to the treatment of autism.  This theory is linked to the notion that the peptide’s presence could regulate behavior and the expressions of this behavior.  It is thought that Oxytocin could significantly improve upon aspects of various social maladies that are traditionally associated with the autism spectrum, such as the ability to read social cues correctly and memory retention in aspects specifically pertaining to social information.

Potential Side Effects of Oxytocin

While scientific study that has been built on animal test subjects has been able to derive a host of theoretical benefits associated with Oxytocin, there have been several potential negative side effects that have been associated with the peptide.

Some of the short-term side effects that have been associated with the peptide may include an increase in heart-rate, a decrease in blood pressure, cardiac arrhythmia, premature ventricular contraction, impaired uterine blood flow, nausea, and vomiting.  Some of the side effects that have been linked to the peptide through the course of long-term exposure include titanic uterine contractions, uterine rupture, postpartum hemorrhage, and water intoxication in female animal test subjects.

However, it has been determined through scientific study based on animal test subjects that oxytocin’s side effects are relatively uncommon in their nature.  Furthermore, these studies have indicated that the peptide is generally considered safe to use on animal test subjects if it is not administered over a period of 24 hours or longer.

Strictly for Controlled Environments

It should be noted that any findings or observations that relate to Oxytocin and its overall functionality should exclusively be done within a strictly controlled environment, such as a medical research facility or a laboratory.  The reason for this is due to the fact that the peptide and the study its operational is currently just fit for scientific study on animal test subjects.  As such, it should be noted that research that has been derived regarding Oxytocin is due to scientific tests conducted in a controlled environment only.

Click here to read Oxytocin – Part 1

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Oxytocin is a neurohypopysial peptide that is considered a nonapeptide, meaning that it consists of nine amino acids.  It is occasionally is known as Oxt.  It primarily acts as a neuromodulator within the brain of animal test subjects, meaning that it uses on ore more neurotransmitters in order to regulate diverse populations of neurons.   It has a molecular mass of 1007.19, and it possesses a molecular formula of C₄₃H₆₆N₁₂O₁₂S₂.

Oxytocin at a Glance

According to scientific study that has been conducted on animal test subjects, it has been determined that Oxytocin is produced by the hypothalamus, which is the segment of the brain that links the endocrine system to the nervous system through the pituitary gland.  It has also been determined that the peptide is stored and secreted by the posterior pituitary gland, which is the pea-size gland that is located on the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain which is responsible for the regulation and control of a host of system-related functions, such as metabolism, pain relief, and sexual organ regulation.

The peptide itself is processed as a non-active precursor protein from the OXT gene.  This particular protein includes neurophysin I, which has been determined to be an oxytocin carrier protein.  It has also been determined that it gets progressively hydrolyzed into smaller pieces through a series of enzymes.  The last hydrolysis that expresses the active oxytocin nonapeptide is catalyzed by peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase.

It has been noted that the peptide is created in magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the suparoptic and paraventicular nuclei.  After it has been successfully stored in Herring bodies at the posterior pituitary’s axon terminals, it is expressed into the blood via the pituitary gland.  The axons that express the peptides express have collaterals that innervate oxytocin receptors within the nucleus accumbens, which is the region in the basal forebrain rostral to the hypothalams’s preoptic area and is responsible for regulation behaviors like reward, reinforcement, fear, and aggression.  It has been theorized that peripheral hormonal and behavior brain effects of the peptide happen through its common release via these axons.  Furthermore, it has been determined that Oxytocin receptors are expressed by neurons through many different parts of the brain and the spinal cord, including the amygdala, septum, brainstem, and venromedial hypothalamus.

It has also been noted through scientific study based on animal test subjects that oxytocin is packaged within the pituitary gland in large, dense-core vesicles where it is tied to neurophysin I.  It has also been noted that the actual secretion of the peptide from the neurosecretory nerve endings is controlled by the electrical activity of the oxytocin cells within the hypothalamus.  These particular cells create action potentials that spread axons out to the pituitary gland’s nerve endings.  These endings contain a significant amount of oxytocin-containin vesicles, which are in turn released through the process of exocytosis once the nerve terminals are depolarized.

It has also been determined that cells that contain oxytocin exist in several tissues throughout an animal test subject’s body.  Some of these tissues include:

• The retina
• The placenta
• The pancreas
• The adrenal medulla
• The interstitial cells of Leydig in male animal test subjects
• The corpos lutea of female animal test subjects

Oxytocin and Brain Function

Scientific study based on animal test subjects has determined that Oxytocin that is expressed from the pituitary gland cannot re-enter the brain after expression.  As such, it is thought that the actual behavioral effects that have been associated with the peptide’s presence stem from a release from centally projecting oxytocin neurons that are different from those that project to the pituitary gland.

One of these behaviors that are associated with the presence of Oxytocin is the process of sexual arousal.  Studies that have injected the peptide into the cerebrospinal fluid of male laboratory rats have resulted in the rodents achieving spontaneous erections.  Conversely, it has been shown that the introduction of the peptide boosts lordosis behavior within female rats, which points to an increase in sexual receptivity.

Another behavior that has been linked to the peptide’s presence is various behaviors linked to attachment, such as bonding and maternal behavior.  Scientific studies that have been conducted on animal test subjects have shown that suppressing the peptide’s presence in females after giving birth do not exhibit typical behaviors that are routinely associated with maternal actions.  Conversely, similar studies that introduce a greater influx of the peptide induce maternal behavior in virginal animal test subjects.

Click here to read Oxytocin – Part 2

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